Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky

This topic is about Abraham Noam Chomsky. He was born in Philadelphia on December 7^th, 1928. His parents were William Zev Chomsky and Elsie Simonofsky both immigrant Russian who were Hebrew scholars and teachers.

Since 1945 he studied philosophy, linguistics and mathematics at the University of Pennsylvania. In that place his tutelage was of the professor Zelling Harris (he was a Jewish immigrant and founder of linguistics departure in that college). Chomsky politics ideology was influenced by Harris and Elsie. Also he was influenced by Harris to study mathematics and philosophy.  

Here he got a doctorate in linguistics en 1955, and also he worked as a French and German teacher at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).   In his doctoral thesis he treated linguistics that he published after in his book Syntactic Structures, his best known work. He is the founder of generative grammar, a language system that has transformed modern linguistics.

Chomsky is considered one of the most important linguists in the twentieth century. His main contribution in the field of linguistics is the influential "transformative-generative grammar" which is an attempt to describe the syntactical processes common to all human language mathematically (Smith, 1999). Chomsky draws a key distinction between the deep structure and surface structure of languages. He argues that the deep structure, which contains the meaning of a sentence, is not culturally determined but rather "hardwired" in the human brain. The meaning is then converted by a transformation into surface structure, which includes the sounds and words in a sentence. The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is the hypothetical brain mechanism that according to Chomsky explained the acquisition of syntactic structure of language. Chomsky hypothesized that the language acquisition device was the system that determined the features of the child's native language. This falls under the realm of the nativist theory of language which states that humans are born with the innate ability for acquiring language.

Linguistics

ABOUT GENERATIVE AND UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR

He made a difference between the unconscious innate knowledge that people have about their language structure and the way they use it. He named ´competence´ to the action that allow people to distinguish grammatical statements of the ones that are not and to understand and generate unlimited new statements. He called ´performance´ to the competence presence, and the sentences done by the speakers. We think that is very important know how the human can communicate their ideas, how people can improve the way that they speak with other people and how can learn more about the correct use of language.

Chomsky postulated the existence of syntactic innate structures that allow the children to acquire the language rapidly and inexplicably. The language is learned by repetition and practice. He illustrated the last conception with the speed that children learn languages rapidly. It is something not possible unless children have an innate capability to learning them.  About how children can learn and develop the language is a point that everybody wants to know because sometimes we can´t understand why children have difficulties in language but study with them we can find a form that can help us to improve the language in general.

We have to understand that something very important in the language is the knowledge because is described as the skills acquired by a person through experience, education and the practical application or understanding of a subject. The Oxford dictionary describes knowledge as facts, information acquired as well as the theoretical and practical understanding of a subject.

Traditionally, schools have been used as an instrument to transmit knowledge; however Chomsky opines that the skills and knowledge taught are often not worthwhile. "The goal of education", according to Noam Chomsky, "is to produce human beings whose values are not accumulation and domination, but instead are free association on equal terms."

According to Chomsky there is an instrumental approach to education. It is characterized as mindless, meaningless drills and exercise given "in preparation for multiple choice exams". This is evident through the state mandated curriculum where standardized tests are necessary to measure student growth and educational success. Chomsky argues that "the value of education should be placed on students' critical thinking skills and the process of gaining useful and applicable knowledge". However Chomsky's view of the factory model of education is that students are mandated to adhere to state written curricula where standardized tests are necessary. Students are inadvertently pushed to learn through memorization of facts, rather than through critical thinking.

Chomsky suggests that society simply reduces education to the requirement of the market. Students are trained to be compliant workers. The education process is reduced to knowledgeable educators who transfer information to those who don't know rather than to help students formulate higher level thinking skills on their own.

Chomsky complains that children are not taught to challenge and think independently, yet they are taught to repeat, follow orders and obey. Education is described as a period of regimentation and control, with a system of false beliefs. Based on these analyses, the goals of education should be to encourage the development of the child's natural capacity.

Chomsky's theory of Generative Grammar is a way of describing the way people learn to communicate. The core of this theory is the idea that all human language originates from a common source, an innate set of grammatical rules and approaches that is hardwired into the human mind. This is a very naturalistic approach, but one that has found ever increasing acceptance amongst experts in the field (Chomsky, 1986).

His fundamental approach to knowledge is very similar to that used in Information Processing Theory. According to Chomsky, in order for knowledge to be retained, there must be previous knowledge already present for the new information to be associated with. He typically refers to this process as "building" on prior knowledge, but it has obvious parallels with the "networking" described by IPT.

Chomsky affirms that a universal grammar exists and that it is part of human genetic. He says that when human born everyone possesses a linguistic mould where all languages are adapted.  This capability is present only in humans. He says that human’s don´t born ´determine´ for any particular language – for example, a Chinese baby who is raised up in USA will speak English as a Native American. So in this way, there is a universal grammar that is present in all languages.

Learning

According to Chomsky, language defines what it means to be human and the study of language is a way in to the study of the human mind. "Although having a language is not a prerequisite for having a mind, language is overwhelmingly our best evidence for the nature of mind" (Smith, 1999). With regard to learning language, Chomsky purports that some aspects of language are explicitly taught in school such the spelling conventions of the written representation of language and forms of technical vocabulary; however, the most fundamental aspects of language are universal. We all know the same unique human language. This notion of universal grammar is the set of linguistic principles that we are endowed with at birth in virtue of being human (Smith, 1999). Chomsky also asserts that there is a genetically determined "window of opportunity" for language acquisition. If the child does not learn its first language during this period, then it will never attain full "native-like mastery" of any language (Smith, 1999). Chomsky has at many times presented many different kinds of evidence in favor of the claim that language is in large part genetically determined including the speed and age-dependence of acquisition. For example, it can be said that we do not need to "learn" that our language contains nouns and verbs; all language contains nouns and verbs (Smith, 1999). We do however; need to learn the noises within the language that are associated with nouns and verbs.

Chomsky also maintains that there is a biological entity, a finite mental organ that develops in children along one of a number of paths, which are determined in advance of any childhood experience. The language organ that emerges, the grammar, is represented in the brain and plays a central role in the person's use of language. Human language describes the distinctive qualities of the mind that are unique to man. The normal use of language can also be thought of as a creative activity. Chomsky notes that we do not understand and may never come to understand what makes it possible for normal human intelligence to use language as an instrument to convey thought and feeling.

With regard to learning, it can be summarized that knowledge grows and matures within us. Acquisition of knowledge is not something that we actively do, but yet something that happens to us.

The goal in teaching is to help cultivate growth and to help the students become interested in learning.

Political activism

Chomsky’s criticism of U.S. governmental policies has continued unabated since that time. In Deterring Democracy (1992) and in other books he has focused on trade and economic issues and accuses the Government of being a “rogue superpower.” “I’m a citizen of the United States,” says Chomsky, “and I have a share of responsibility for what it does. I’d like to see it act in ways that meet decent moral standards. It’s back to moral truisms: it’s of little value to criticize the crimes of someone else—though you should do it, and tell the truth. I have no influence over the policies of [other countries] but a certain degree over the policies of the U.S. It’s not a matter of expectation but of aspiration.”

Chomsky's believes, in very broad terms, that consensus is the mutual agreement of mankind when they assume the responsibility of managing and governing themselves in communities, workplaces and society. A given society reaches agreement or consensus through a cohesive collaboration that aspires to find mutual agreement among members of the community. The goal is to represent the ideals and concerns of the society versus the self-interest of any one dominating person, group or organization. Obviously, this is an extremely broad and idealized treatment of the phenomenon. Chomsky seems to think in very broad terms, though, even as he approaches specific societies.

Noam Chomsky hangman game » hangman

Gramática de los casos de Fillmore

La gramática de casos es el módulo gramatical que se encarga de estudiar la distribución y el movimiento de los sintagmas nominales. Como teoría de análisis gramatical fue desarrollada a partir 1968 por el lingüista americano Charles J. Fillmore en el contexto de la Gramática transformacional. Según esta teoría, una predicación está constituida por un verbo que es combinado con uno o varios papeles temáticos, tales como el Agente, el Tema o el Instrumental. Estos papeles temáticos toman la forma de sintagmas nominales, y la distribución de estos viene dada por el caso gramatical, que es una propiedad asignada a los SN de manera obligatoria, pues en caso de carecer de ella, la frase resultante no sería gramatical. La labor del caso es pues la de asignar una función gramatical específica a cada sintagma nominal.

En la teoría de Fillmore, el verbo selecciona un cierto número de casos profundos o papeles temáticos que forman su marco casual. Así, el marco casual abastece de información importante sobre la valencia semántica del sintagma verbal, del adjetival y del nominal. Los casos profundos están sometidos a un cierto número de restricciones: por ejemplo, un caso profundo puede aparecer en una frase sólo una vez. Hay unos casos que son obligatorios (argumentos), mientras que otros son facultativos. No está permitido suprimir casos obligatorios; haciendo esto, obtenemos frases gramaticales como: María dio las manzanas ____.

Dentro de un predicado, los elementos que pueden asignar caso son los verbos y las preposiciones, que imponen el caso morfológico adecuado en los sintagmas nominales. A esta relación sintagmática se la denomina reacción. Como puede verse, los casos gramaticales están íntimamente relacionados con los papeles temáticos, sin embargo la noción de caso es de naturaleza sintáctica, mientras la de papel temático es de naturaleza semántica.

Caso estructural:

Abby fears the police.

Abby teme a la policía.

*Fears the police Abby.

Teme a la policía Abby.

En ambos ejemplos la asignación del caso depende de si el sintagma nominal se encuentra en situación de reacción con el elemento asignado de caso: la flexión verbal, el verbo y las preposiciones. En el latín y el alemán la asignación puede apreciarse en la forma fonética, pues se presenta en forma de morfemas anexionados a la raíz. La obligatoriedad posicional de los elementos en el inglés se debe a que los sintagmas nominales deben moverse hasta cierta posición para obtener caso.

Caso inherente

El caso inherente, por su parte, es dependiente de la asignación de papeles temáticos. Generalizando se considera que los casos genitivo, dativo y partitivo son ejemplos de caso inherente. Se considera que el caso es una propiedad idiosincrática del papel temático cuya función cumple el SN en la frase.

John's belief of the rumor (genitive)

De John creencia del rumor

La creencia de John en el rumor.

Gramática de los casos word search game » make word search

Análisis del Discurso

Historia

El Análisis del Discurso (AD) surgió en los años 1960 y 1970 en varias disciplinas y en varios países al mismo tiempo: la antropología, la lingüística, la filosofía, la poética, la sociología, la psicología cognitiva y social, la historia y las ciencias de la comunicación. El desarrollo del AD fue paralelo y relacionado con la emergencia de otras transdisciplinas, como la semiótica o semiología, la pragmática, la sociolingüística, la psicolingüística y la etnografía de la comunicación. En los últimos años el AD se ha hecho muy importante como aproximación cualitativa en las ciencias humanas y sociales.

Enfoques

Según el enfoque sobre el discurso (como texto, estructura verbal, proceso mental, acción, interacción o conversación) hay muchas líneas en el AD, como la gramática del texto, el análisis de la conversación, la psicología del procesamiento del texto, la psicología discursiva (una dirección inglesa en la psicología social), la estilística, la retórica, el análisis de la argumentación, el análisis de la narración, la teoría de géneros, y mucho más. El análisis crítico del discurso es un enfoque especial que toma posición política y analiza el papel del discurso en la reproducción de la dominación (como abuso de poder), así como en la resistencia contra la dominación.

Métodos

Los métodos del AD son en general cualitativos: descripción detallada de las estructuras y estrategias de los discursos escritos o hablados, en varios niveles: sonidos y estructuras visuales y multimedia, la sintaxis (estructuras formales de las oraciones), la semántica (las estructuras del sentido y de la referencia), la pragmática (los actos de habla, la cortesía, etc.), la interacción y la conversación, los procesos y representaciones mentales de la producción y de la comprensión del discurso, y las relaciones de todas esas estructuras con los contextos sociales, políticas, históricas y culturales.

En ese sentido el AD se distingue del análisis de contenido que es un método más bien cuantitativo de las ciencias sociales que se aplica a grandes cantidades de textos, por ejemplo con una codificación de propiedades observables de los textos. El análisis de contenido por lo tanto no tiene acceso a los sentidos o funciones (no observables) del discurso, y en general es mucho menos detallado que el AD.

Tipos o estilos de estudios del discurso

Dentro y entre las disciplinas hay muchos tipos o estilos de hacer análisis del discurso:

Analítico lingüístico

Una aproximación, que se podría llamar analítica, tiene su inspiración principal de la lingüística, y es más explícita, sistemática y de escritura en general más accesible que el enfoque filosófico. Aquí se estudia sistemáticamente y en muchos detalles las estructuras del discurso como objeto verbal (texto, argumentación, narración), como los temas, la coherencia local y global, los pronombres, el estilo, etc. Los nombres más destacados en esta línea muy diversa (y de origen sobre todo europeo) son: János Petafi, Wolfgang Dressler, Robert de Beaugrande, Teun A. van Dijk, Ruth Wodak, Talmy Givón, Sandra Thompson, Robert Longacre, Michael Halliday, Jim Martin, John Sinclair, Malcolm Coulthard, Petr Sgall, Frans van Eemeren, y Wallace Chafe.

Análisis de la conversación

Otra línea más bien analítica, que surgió de la micro sociología y la etnometodología, sobre todo en EEUU, enfoca sobre el discurso como interacción, primero en el análisis detallado de las estructuras y estrategias de la conversación cotidiana, y después también las interacciones verbales en las instituciones y organizaciones. Esta línea, que se conoce sobre todo como análisis de la conversación tiene muchas relaciones con la pragmática, la sociolingüística interactiva, en psicología discursiva (dentro de la psicología social) y la línea de la etnografía de la comunicación en antropología. Analistas prominentes de la conversación son, entre otros, Erving Goffman, Harvey Sacks, Emmanuel Schegloff, Gail Jefferson, John Heritage, Paul Drew, Paul ten Have, Charles y Marjorie Goodwin, y Douglas Maynard.

En etnografía y antropología se destacan sobre todo: Dell Hymes, John Gumperz, Elinor Ochs y Sandro Duranti. Y en la pragmática del discurso y de la conversación, Jef Verschueren, Jan Blommaert, y Stephen Levinson. De otra perspectiva también: Deborah Tannen y Deborah Schiffrin. En psicología discursiva: Michael Billig, Jonathan Potter, y Derek Edwards.

Psicología cognitiva-experimental

En la psicología cognitiva, el estudio del discurso es en general experimental (de laboratorio) y enfoca sobre las estrategias y representaciones mentales de la producción, la comprensión, la memorización y la recuperación del discurso o de su información. Explica, por ejemplo, lo que normalmente memorizamos y olvidamos después de leer un texto — o lo que hace la producción o la comprensión más fácil o más difícil. Este enfoque relaciona los procesos de producción o de comprensión con un análisis explícito del rol crucial del conocimiento sociocultural compartido en la comunicación y la interacción. Una de las nociones que se han usado con mucho éxito en esta línea es la noción de modelo mental — una representación en la memoria a largo plazo, sobre la situación o los eventos a que se refiere un discurso. En ese sentido, comprender un discurso quiere decir poder construir un modelo mental del referente del discurso: un fragmento del mundo real o ficcional.

Las figuras más prominentes en esta área son: Walter Kintsch, Teun A. van Dijk, Art Graesser, Mary Ann Gernsbacher, y Tom Trabasso.

Inteligencia artificial-informática
Relacionadas con la psicología cognitiva y las ciencias cognitivas en general, pero también con la gramática formal y la lógica, encontramos las líneas de la informática del discurso, como Inteligencia artificial. Aquí se escriben programas que simulan la producción, la comprensión, la traducción, etc. del discurso, y se representan los conocimientos (generales o especializados) que el programa necesita para esos procesos. Unos científicos importantes en esta área son: Bonnie Lynn Webber, Barbara Grosz y Roger Schank.

Análisis crítico del discurso

El Análisis crítico del discurso (ACD) se ubica en cualquier otra aproximación mencionada, pero lo hace desde una perspectiva social, política y crítica, enfocando sobre la manera que el discurso se usa y abusa para establecer, legitimar o ejercer — y resistir — el poder y la dominación. Se interesa sobre todo por el análisis del racismo, del sexismo, el clasismo, y la pobreza, y se relaciona con movimientos sociales, como el feminismo, el pacifismo, el ecologismo, la antiglobalización, etc. El ACD no tiene métodos fijos, sino usa los mejores métodos adecuados en el planteamiento y análisis de los problemas sociales, que son su objetivo principal. Los nombres más conocidos en ACD son: Roger Fowler, Michel Paªcheux, Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, Luisa Martín Rojo, Teun A. van Dijk, Theo van Leeuwen, Gunther Kress y Paul Chilton.

Aplicaciones
Todas esas líneas o estilos de AD tienen una dimensión más bien teórica, una dimensión descriptiva e analítica y una dimensión aplicada. Las aplicaciones del AD se encuentran en todas las áreas de la sociedad, como los medios de comunicación (estudio de los efectos), la educación (como los textos escolares, la interacción en el aula, aprendizaje de las lenguas), la publicidad y la propaganda, la política, y la salud (para el análisis de trastornos del lenguaje y de la comunicación).

Análisis del discurso Word Scramble Game » word scramble game

Structural linguistics

A usually synchronic approach to language study in which a language is analyzed as an independent network of formal systems, each of which is composed of elements that are defined in terms of their contrasts with other elements in the system.

“Methodologically, it analyzes large-scale systems by examining the relations and functions of the smallest constituent elements of such systems, which range from human languages and cultural practices to folktales and literary texts”Structuralism is a theory of humankind in which all elements of human culture, including literature, are thought to be parts of a system of signs. Critic Robert Scholes has described structuralism as a reaction to "’modernist’ alienation and despair."

(pratt.edu/~arch543p/help/structuralism.html)

Structuralism was heavily influenced by linguistics, especially by the pioneering work of Ferdinand de Saussure. Particularly useful to structuralists was Saussure’s concept of the phoneme (the smallest basic speech sound or unit of pronunciation) and his idea that phonemes exist in two kinds of relationships: diachronic and synchronic. A phoneme has a diachronic, or "horizontal," relationship with those other phonemes that precede and follow it (as the words appear, left to right, on this page) in a particular usage, utterance, or narrative—what Saussure, a linguist, called parole (French for "word"). A phoneme has a synchronic, or "vertical," relationship with the entire system of language within which individual usages, utterances, or narratives have meaning—what Saussure called langue (French for "tongue," as in "native tongue," meaning language). An means what it means in English because those of us who speak the language are plugged into the same system (think of it as a computer network where different individuals can access the same information in the same way at a given time).Empirisism in american structuralism is An approach to acquiring knowledge that emphasizes repeatable observations through the  physical senses
Noam Chomsky, for instance, who powerfully influenced structuralism through works such as Reflections on Language (1975), identified and distinguished between "surface structures" and "deep structures" in language and linguistic literatures, including texts. Characterizations of American Structuralism: Corpus-based, Examples from observation, not from introspection, Taxonomic: no universals, Bottom-Up: phonetics, phonology, etc…, Each level is autonomous, Based on early 1900s ideas: behaviorism, tabula rasa, empiricism.

Structuralism in United States, can be defined positively. In the United  States itself a line of development can be traced that is not only geographical, but that has a certain social and intellectual unity.

Leonard Bloomfield

Leonard Bloomfield founded American structuralism, based on structural linguistics developed by Saussure. Bloomfield is known for applying the principles of behaviorist psychology to linguistics, defining "the meaning of a linguistic form as the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response it calls forth in the hearer."

His 1933 book Language is the classical structuralist text, setting out Bloomfield's rigorously empiricist approach to language study.

In his 1942 guide for second language learners, he advocated a blank slate approach:

The sounds, constructions, and meanings of different languages are not the same: to get an easy command of a foreign language one must learn to ignore the features of any and all other languages, especially of one's own.

The unity of American Structuralism would be associated in the minds of most linguists today with the approach variously called “post-Bloomfieldian”, “neo-Bloomfieldian”, or simply “Bloomfieldian”.

Structural linguistics and Leonard Bloomfield hangman game » hangman puzzle

Glossary

Glossary

A priori: Expression often used to disparage other’s work and invite approbation of one´s own, usually dad.

A posteriori: Expression often used to disparage other’s work and invite approbation of one´s own, usually good. 

Basic and modified meaning: the meaning of a morpheme is a sememe, constnt, definite, discrete from all other sememes.

Behaviorism: assumed the fundamental identity of physically determined©- behavior with any other kind of nonlinguistic (a) behavior. But it was conceded that while all (a) behavior is the immediate, consequence of (a) factors, (c) behavior is mediate.

Binarism: a mode of thought predicated on stable oppositions (as good and evil or male and female) that is seen in post-structuralism analysis as an inadequate approach to areas of difference;  also   : a specific dichotomy subscribed to or reinforced in such thought.

Binarisim revisited: Ambiguous or inadequate elements in combination compound ambiguity or inadequacy.

Borrowing: to receive with the implied or expressed intention of returning the same or an equivalent.

Colloquial standard: it is observed in situations lacking formal behaviors among observably privileged classes within a larger speech community.

Connotation: it is a subjective or socialized relation of the referent for speaker to the other referents and properties.

Connotation: the suggesting of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names or describes.

Constituency: a group or body that patronizes, supports, or offers representation  *creating grass-roots constituency for continuing the project — Fred Reed*  b : the people involved in or served by an organization (as a business or institution).

Correct: Truth is not popularly distinguished from validity, but validity can be viewed as subsuming true and correct. E.g. statements are true, calculations correct.

Denotation: it is reference and/or referent.

Dialect geography: the study of dialects with regard to their geographic distribution, as well as how their distribution may be affected by geography, e.g., the spread of a particular dialect being halted at a mountain range, forest belt, body of water, etc.

Duration: it is the relative length of time through which the vocal organs are kept in a position.

Empiricism: The posteriori or inductive approach is claimed to discover structure in data.

Endocentric: Is a grammatical construction that fulfills the same linguistic function as one of its parts, free forms combining produce a resultant phrase, of which the form-class of one member may by determinative of the phrase’s grammatical behavior.

Episemes: Are the meanings of the tagmemes.

Exocentric: Is when the phrase or construction does not follow the grammatical behavior of either constituent.  

Expression: If meaning is sense: it is a static relation, process, or action relating a speech and inside the speaker. If meaning is reference: it is a static relation, process, or action relating a speech and outside the speaker. If meaning is sense-and-reference: it is a static relation, process, or action linking an aspect of outside the speaker mediated by inside the speaker.

Form: it expresses its meaning.

Free forms: free forms combing can be said to produce a resultant phrase, of which the form-class of one member may be determinative of the phrase’s grammatical behavior.

Insight: the power or act of seeing into a situation.

Labialized: it is when the lips are rounded during the production of the consonant.

Labiovelatized: it is together with the former.

Language: we use language to study language. It is here that conflicting assumptions about what can be legitimate data, what is an appropriate method, what counts as evidence and what are feasible goals. Language can be seen as the totality of mutually effective substitute responses.

Lexicon: the vocabulary of a language, an individual speaker or group of speakers, or a subject.

Linguistics: is talk about language, the need to discuss these distinctions suggests that somehow, the (a) objective data can be connected with (b) how we think even if (c) our inherited language conventions are an unreliable witness of how it works.

Literary standard: it is accessible through general or personal educational effort, tracends geographic and social barriers, and is used on occasions described as formal.

Local dialect: it is that interacting groups with which others have so little contact those dialect speakers are incomprehensible without considerable attention.

Mentalism: is dualism, it recognizes two kinds (mental and material) of data, experience, perception, insight, causality, evidence, explanation, study goals and methods of study.

Mere: is a syncategorematic expression: it lacks both sense and reference; is not quantifiable, and does not function as subject or predicate in falsifiable assertions. Its use informs us about attitudes, not facts.

Modification: it presumes some standard from which a departure is made, and the criteria for establishing the base can vary, legitimately or inconsistently.

Notation: the act, process, method, or an instance of representing by a system or set of marks, signs, figures, or characters.

Order: Is the most important in languages, grammatically and /or stylistically. 

Palatalization: here, during the production of a consonant, the tongue and lips take up, as far as compatible with the main features of the phoneme, the position of a front vowel, etc.

Parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection, and each of these explain how a word is used. 

Phoneme: it is the branch of science that deals with sound-production.

Phonetics: it provides an objective record of gross acoustic features, only part of which is distinctive for particular languages.

Phonology: or practical phonetics, determines which features are the distinctive ones.

Pitch: it is the frequency of vibration in the musical sound of the voice.  

Provincial standard: it is observed among those remote geographically from the formative environments of cultural centers.

Psychologists: talks about language. 

Rationalism: the a priori or deductive approach has been said to impose structure upon data.  

Reference: it is a static relation, dynamic process or action, whose terms are in inside the speaker and outside the speaker.

Referent: it is a bit of objective outside the speaker or subjective inside the speaker now regarded as part of outside the speaker.  

Situation: it includes every object and happening in there, hence an aspect of outside the speaker which speaker and hearer equally constitute, distinct only by their individual conditioning by the rest of outside the speaker in the past. 

Sense: it is a state, process, or action within an inside the speakers, by which a speech is related to an outside the speaker.

Sentence types: order can imply position, which can be functional; a form alone is in absolute position with another, in included position. Sentences related through order, position, and, within a sentence, are distinguished by modulation, paratactic arrangement, and features of selection.

Sub- standard speech behavior: it is found among those who must interact daily as peers with each other, but only occasionally, and as subordinates, to the privileged; their goals, satisfactions, reinforcement and opportunities differ markedly from those of standard speakers, although they may occupy identical territory. 

Syntax: Is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages.  

Tagmemes: is the smallest functional element in the grammatical structure of a language are meaningful units of grammatical form and can consist of several taxemes. 

Taxeme: any element of speech that may differentiate one utterance from another with a different meaning, such as the occurrence of a particular phoneme, the presence of a certain intonation, or a distinctive word order. 

Transition: it is the manner in which the vocal organs pass from inactivity to the formation of a phoneme, or from the formation of one phoneme to that of the next, or from the formation of a phoneme to inactivity. 

Valid: logically correct.

Velarization: here, in which the tongue is retracted as for a back vowel.   

Words: Are the smallest elements that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. The word is a free form; freedom of occurrence largely determines our attitude towards parts of a language.

word scramble game » scramble word